JWJeffery.com

Hello Everyone:

I’ve been planning for quite a while now to finish my bachelors degree at Lipscomb. However, my wife is in the middle of getting accepted into nursing school here in Portland, which means that we will be here for another 2 - 3 years. I am graduating with my AA (with honors) in June.

So, I finally broke it down and figured that if we are going to spend the next 2 - 3 years in Portland, that I might as well finish by bachlors degree so that I can be ready to enter graduate studes at Lipscomb, which is what I really want to do anyway.

So, I’ve applied to Marylhurst University. Marylhurst is Portland’s other Catholic college. Its very heavy on the liberal arts, and it is quite a bit more progressive than the University of Portland. I plan on concentrating in Social Philosophy and Christian Ethics while there. This is a new direction for me, I’ve only taken one philosophy class at Clackamas, but I really enjoyed it (or at least the part of it that focused on social and political philosophy, and ethics) and I think a focus on these two disciplines will be helpful when applying to graduate programs in history.

Most of my reading lately has been on the American Civil War, which is one reason of several I haven’t been blogging lately. I’ve just been trying to get a good background in what happened during that period in American History. I’m hoping to finish in that area for a little while and get back into theology and church history, and resume blogging more frequently. We’ll see.

Josh

One of Tiziano Vecellio’s–or Titian, as he is well known–most celebrated works is his Venus of Urbino. Titian, a master of the high renaissance, created a masterpiece that echoes that of his mentor’s, Giorgione, but surpasses it in both beauty and eroticism.
While Titian’s work was inspired by that of his masters, his work went on influence the work of many painters after him, many of them masters in their own right. In this paper, I propose to examine both the inspiration of Titian’s work, as well as the influence that the Venus has had on other works down even to our present time.
In Venus, we see a young nude woman lying on a red colored bed, propping herself up on pillows, her left hand covering her vulva in an erotic pose. Behind her, two maids are looking into a cassoni, a traditional Italian bridal chest commissioned by the groom to store the belongings a new bridge (Farber). One maid, in a red dress echoing the red of Venus’ couch, is holding a gown probably meant for Venus. Beside Venus, a small white dog lies on the couch, sleeping. Most scholars believe that the dog symbolizes fidelity, although some point out that the dog is sleeping, a potential ominous sign. Venus gazes outwards—with an inviting, welcoming gaze—directly at the viewer, but more likely towards a subject outside the picture plane that we cannot see. The identity of this unknown viewer has been the subject of much scholarly speculation (Farber), and is important since the identity of the unknown viewer would properly frame the context of the work.

A visual comparison of Titian’s work with Giorgione’s Sleeping Venus makes it clear that Titian borrowed and visually quoted from Giorgione. Titian apprenticed to Giorgione for three years, and in fact, he finished the painting for Giorgione after Giorgione’s death in 1510 (Mataev). From the neck down to the hips, the Venus of Giorgione and the Venus of Titian are the same. The faces of both Venus’ are also very similar, though it is impossible to tell if Giorgione and Titian used the same model for this work. The poses are also the same, save for the raised right arm of Giorgione’s version and two visible toes of the right foot lying under the left leg in Titian’s. The similarities, however, end there. Giorgione depicts Venus in the countryside, laying on the ground, with a crumpled sheet and two red pillows beneath her arm and head, while Titian displays his Venus in a luxurious Renaissance era mansion, complete with Corinthian style pillars. This is a question of function, as Giorgione’s intent was to depict Venus as a metaphor for a landscape, one of Giorgione’s great interests (Adams 575). Titian, however, appears to place his Venus in the context of marital lust and fidelity (Farber).
The influence of Titian’s Venus is unquestioned. While Venus has always been a popular subject of art, the pose and sexuality exuded by Venus was new with Titian, and his master. One hundred and ten years later, another master of painting, the Spaniard Diego Velázquez, painted his masterpiece Venus with a Mirror. According to Adams, “it reflects the influence of the reclining Venuses by Giorgione… and Titian… which Velázquez probably studied during his two trips to Italy” (671). This influence could easily be seen if one could take Velázquez’s Venus and turn her around. One would see, among other things, the same general pose of Venus, with one leg tucked under the other, with Venus’ body fully exposed. However, a significant variation of the pose would exist, which would be the exposure of Venus’ vulva to public view. Velázquez avoids this however, by facing Venus away from us, and avoids placing Venus’ arm in this position by performing some playful artwork with the mirror, as a realistic depiction of the scene would show us much more of Venus. Again, to quote Adams, “… Velázquez has erred on the side of modesty by showing only the face of the model in the mirror. A stricter application of the laws of physics might have shown another part of the body” (671). In doing so, Velázquez creates a racy portrait that echoes Titian, but that is acceptable to the tastes and rules of Counter-Reformation Spain (Jeffery). Velázquez went on to influence others through his Venus with a Mirror, such as Ingres’ Grande Odalisque. An exposition of Titian’s influence of Ingres and others influenced by Velázquez might bear some fruit, but the space in a paper of this scope prevents us from further review of this subject currently.

Titian had a much more obvious influence on Édouard Manet and his painting Olympia. In Olympia, Manet provides us with a visual quotation of Titian’s Venus, as well as several visual echoes that do not exactly correspond because of Manet’s intention. Olympia, in contrast to the marital Venus, is a prostitute. Manet’s model, Victorine Meurend, was a prostitute herself, as well as an accomplished painter, and the choice of title for the painting, Olympia, raise the guile of Parisians as Olympia was a common street-name for prostitutes in Paris during this time period (Wilfong). Among echoes (but not quotations) are the alert and alarmed black cat standing on the end of the bed, a black maid presenting flowers to Olympia instead of retrieving a gown for Venus, and the swapping of color, from the black background behind Venus’ upper torso to the black background behind Olympia’s legs, brining full attention to her naked body. Olympia covers her Vulva with her hand, but instead of putting her hand closely to her body, she places her palm down on her legs, effectively blocking a view and access to her body. Olympia looks at the viewer as well, though in a bold, casual way, while Venus’ look is warm and inviting. While Manet was influenced by Titian, he was not appropriating Venus for a modern day audience. According to one scholar, the modern critics’ presumption of Venus’ impropriety is a misconception that Edouard Manet’s Olympia popularized (Farber).
Titian’s influence can also be seen in Henri Rousseau’s The Dream. In this work we again see a reclining nude, alert and sitting up, viewing a jungle around her. Rousseau appears to have taken Venus and placed her back outside, but this time using her legs to provide partial cover of her body, and not her hand. The reclining nude, with her left leg under her right carries on the pose of Titian’s Venus.

Another work, which echoes both Titian, as well as Manet, is Tom Wesselmann’s Great American Nude No. 57. This work, painted four hundred and thirty four years after Titian’s Venus, carries on the presumption of impropriety in Titian’s work, depicting a tan, nude woman with large, erect nipples, reclining on a bed. While her lower half is not displayed, the flower to her right is a bold and obvious sexual statement about the subject’s sex. Wesselmann’s work, based on Manet and others who have over-sexualized Titian’s original, shows a complete lack of understanding of Titian’s goals in his painting of the nude Venus. Wesselmann’s “nude is a symbol of American vulgarity” (Adams 937).
Titian’s influence can also be seen in small ways in many other well known works of art. For example, Venus of Urbino is celebrated as a great masterpiece if Johan Zoffany’s The Tribuna of the Uffizi, where Titian’s work is shown as the largest painting in the room, and held by two members of high society. Coincidentally, several other depictions of Venus are present in Zoffany’s portrait, as the Uffizi was the museum of the Medici family, who were strong humanists that supported classical subjects in art. Titian’s influence can also be seen in Gustave Moreau’s Galatea, which depicts the mythical Galatea reclining in a nude pose partially echoing that of Venus. An obvious influence can also be seen in Antonio Canova’s sculpture, Maria Paolina Borghese as Venus. In this work, Maria lounges nude from the waist up, in a pose echoing that of Titian’s Venus.
Lingering influence can also be seen in both Matisse and Moore. Henri Matisse’s Piano Lesson features a nude reclining on a chair, with a clear visual quotation of Venus’ hand over her vulva in Titian’s depiction. While in Henry Moore’s odd sculpture “Reclining Figure”, one can clearly see the echo of the general pose that Titian’s Venus holds.
Titian’s masterfully executed painting, Venus of Urbino, has made a lasting impression on artists from the Baroque period and forward until today. The pose of Venus, both general and specific, can be seen in visual quotations and echoes in the copious amounts of reclining nudes that we have received down to the present time. Titian’s lasting influence confirms him as a master painter, and his style in Venus is sure to be echoed and quoted for years to come in the art of our time.

Works Cited
Adams, Laurie Schneider. Art across Time. 3rd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2006.

Farber, Allen. “Titian’s Venus of Urbino.” Home Page. 2006. State University of New York at Oneonta. 14 Mar. 2009 .

Jeffery, Joshua W. “Venus with a Mirror Response”. Essay. Ts. (1). Clackamas Community College, Oregon City, OR.

Mataev, Olga. “Titian Biography.” Olga’s Gallery - Online Art Museum. Ed. Helen Mataev. 14 Mar. 2009 .

Wilfong, Blake L. “Hooker Heroes: Victorine Meurend.” The World of the Wondersmith. 14 Mar. 2009 .

List of Illustrations
Canova, Antonio. Maria Paolina Borghese as Venus. 1808. Borghese Gallery, Rome. Official Site Borghese Gallery. 16 Mar. 2009 .

Giorgione. Sleeping Venus. C. 1509. Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden. Wikimedia. 1 June 2007. 15 Mar. 2009 .

Manet, Edouard. Olympia. 1865. Musee d’Orsay, Paris. Musee d’Orsay: Collections Catalogue. 16 Mar. 2009 .

Matisse, Henri. The Piano Lesson. 1916. Painting and Sculpture, Museum of Modern Art, New York. Museum of Modern Art. 16 Mar. 2009 .
Moore, Henry. Reclining Figure. 1957-8. UNESCO Building, Paris. Henry Moore Perry Green Exhibitions. Henry Moore Foundation. 16 Mar. 2009 .

Moreau, Gustave. Galatea. 1880-1. Works-in-Focus, Musee d’Orsay, Paris. Musee d’Orsay: Collections Catalogue. 16 Mar. 2009 .

Rousseau, Henri. The Dream. 1910. Painting and Sculpture, Museum of Modern Art, New York. Museum of Modern Art. 16 Mar. 2009 .

Titian. Venus of Urbino. C. 1538. Titian Room, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy. Virtual Uffizi. Galleria degli Uffizi. 15 Mar. 2009 .

Velazquez, Diego. Venus with a Mirror (Rokeby Venus). C. 1648. National Gallery, London. The National Gallery. 15 Mar. 2009 .

Zoffany, Johann. The Tribuna of the Uffizi. 1772-3. The Royal Collection of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, Windsor Castle, London. The Royal Collection. 16 Mar. 2009 .

Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzuoli, or Parmigianino, which means “Little Man from Parma” was born in 1503 in Parma in what is now modern day Italy. At the time of his birth, Parma was under control of the French (“Parma”), however, control of the city changed several times during Parmigianino’s short life.
Very little biographical information on Parmigianino exists, and historical analysis on his works is also very scarce. This seminar will rehearse available information regarding his life and provide a short overview of several of Parmigianino’s paintings.
Parmigianino’s father, who died shortly after his birth, was a painter, and after his death, Parmigianino was raised by his two uncles, who were also painters (Sortais). Parmigianino learned to paint, and had completed his first mature work by age fourteen. By the age of 19, he had been commissioned to paint frescoes for the Church of San Giovanni Evangelista, where his work showed the influence of Antonio Allegri da Correggio, whose work he was very much enthralled with (“Parmigianino”).
Parmigianino decided to go to Rome to when he was 21 to further his study and to paint. Upon his arrival, he met and gave his Self-portrait in a Convex Mirror to Pope Clement VII as a gift. Clement recognized the genius of the work and immediately awarded Parmigianino a commission to paint in the Sala de’ Pontefici of the Vatican (“Parmigianino”).

Parmigianino stayed in Rome for about three years, until it was sacked by the Germans. Parmigianino left the city and went to Bologna, where he ironically painted a portrait of the newly crowned Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V (”Parmigianino: Biography”), who was responsible for the sack of Rome. In this painting, created around 1529-1530, Charles V is presented to the viewer in both royal garb and in armor, signifying him as a warrior-king, though he was elected to the throne of the empire. Charles V receives the Earth from a boyish Hercules (Wehmeier), who in Greek mythology had held the earth for Atlas while Atlas retrieved magic apples for Hercules. Charles V receiving the Earth from Hercules indicates that the emperor has the strength to hold the Earth. Holding a staff in one hand and a sword in the other, Charles V appears ready to hold the Earth by force. Hovering about the Earth and Charles V is Fame, signifying Charles’ new status as emperor. Fame’s sheer robes and features add a dimension of eroticism to a work that otherwise exudes raw power.
While in Bologna, Parmigianino painted an altar piece for the Nuns of St. Margaret entitled Madonna and Child, with Margaret and other Saints (“Parmigianino”). In this work, Mary is seated with Jesus on her lap, while a barely clothed Saint Margaret is seated to the left of the Madonna and covered by her hair and a conveniently placed drapery. Behind Mary are the remains of a classical city, with a free-standing pillar providing a visual quotation for the later executed Madonna with the Long Neck. The scantly clad Saint Margaret holds a vase, another similarity between the two works, and Mary has an elongated neck that echoes the future work of the artist.

During this same time period, Parmigianino painted one of his most well known works, Cupid Sharpening his Bow (”Parmigianino: Biography”). In this work, a very
mature, sinuous and nude cupid is slightly bent over at the waist carving his bow with a large knife. Between Cupid’s legs, we see two nude putti, a boy and a girl. The male putto displays a bemused look on his face, holding out the hand of the female putto, with the intent of possibly making her touch Cupid. The female putto shows her displeasure with a grimace. The work is charged with a perverse eroticism as the naked cupid works his long knife down the length of the bow, with wood shavings laying all around below. The bow is given an organic feeling to it as the viewer gazes at the half cut wood shavings hanging from the top of the bow, echoing the curls of hair on Cupid at the putti below.
After his stay in Bologna, Parmigianino returned to his home town of Parma, where he received a Commission from the Confraternity of Friars of the Church of San Maria della Steccata (Sortais). Parmigianino started the work, but became very involved in alchemy, and neglected his painting (”Parmigianino: Biography”). After several years, the Confraternity tired of waiting for the completion of the work, has Parmigianino imprisoned for breaching his contract, which had included half payment at the beginning of the commission (Sortais). Parmigianino vowed to finish the work if he could be released, and subsequently was. However, instead of finishing the work, the absconded to Casal Maggiore. Here, Parmigianino painted until he died a short time later of a fever (Parmigianino). Parmigianino was buried nude in the Church of Servites, providing an odd end to an odd and interesting life.

Works Cited
“Parma.” Wikipedia. 8 Mar. 2009. 12 Mar. 2009 .
“Parmigianino: Biography.” Answers.com - Online Dictionary, Encyclopedia and much more. 11 Mar. 2009 .
“Parmigiano.” NNDB: Tracking the entire world. 11 Mar. 2009 .
Sortais, G. “Il Parmigiano.” The Catholic Eycyclopedia. Ed. Kevin Knight. 11 vols. New York: Robert Appleton, 1911. The Catholic Encyclopedia. NewAdvent.org. 12 Mar. 2009 .
Wehmeier, Jennifer M.L. “Panel 9: Territories and Geographies.” Centre for Medieval and Renaissance Studies Conference 2007 Power. Proc. of Power: 2007, Collingwood College, Durham. 9 July 2007. Durham University. 13 Mar. 2009 .

Jan van Eyck’s work, The Arnolfini Portrait, is a famous piece of Flemish portraiture with a lively history of interpretation (Hall xviii). Most interpretations of the work hinge upon the symbolism found in the iconography of the work, while others rely upon the presumption that the work is nothing but masterfully rendered naturalism (Carrier 239), while still others apply various modern art history methodologies (Hall xix). In this paper I will provide a brief survey of the leading interpretations and methods that have been applied to the Arnolfini Portrait.
One cannot review the analysis and historiography of the Arnolfini Portrait without encountering some sort of rehearsal of Erwin Panofsky’s reading of the work in his book Early Netherlandish Painting. Panofsky’s reading of the painting marked the beginning of allegorical interpretation for the work and became the launching point from which other art historians and critics started in crafting their own allegorical interpretations (Carrier 238).
The standard allegorical interpretation inspired by Panofsky studies the iconology of the portrait. The dog standing between the couple, for instance, is interpreted to be either a symbol of fidelity in the marriage (Farber, “Jan Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Wedding Portrait”), or as an symbol of erotic sexual tension (Adams). The solitary burning candle in the chandelier above the couple is seen as the “all seeing wisdom of God” (Carrier 238). The convex mirror behind the couple is also seen as a symbol of the all seeing eye of God. An ornamental sculpture on the rear bed post is interpreted as the image of Saint Margaret, the patron saint of childbirth, suggesting fertility in the marriage (Farber). This theme is repeated in the still life depictions of the oranges on the table and window sill behind the male subject, as fruit is linked with fertility. Still others interpret the fruit to be a symbol of innocence at the beginning of marriage (Carrier 239). The two pairs of discarded shoes are commonly believed to be symbolic of the bed chamber being “holy ground” in the sense of Moses encountering the burning bush at Mt. Horeb (Carrier 238).
While the iconographic interpretation of various items in the portrait are often challenged by scholars, Panofsky’s most important claim regarding the work continues to be supported by many scholars: that the work is the depiction of a wedding ceremony (Carrier 238). Before Panofsky, even the National Gallery of London, the home of the work, was uncertain as to the subject of the portrait (Hall 6). Panofsky’s interpretation rests in part on the inscription above the mirror behind the couple, which says “Johannes de Eyck fuit hic,” or “Jan van Eyck was here” (Hall 7). Because of the stylized scripts and the assertion that the artist who painted the wedding was present to it, Panofsky and others have made the argument that the work is nothing less than a signed, notarized wedding portrait (Farber).
Besides allegorical interpretations, some scholars have pointed to naturalism as the prime window through which this work should be viewed. This view sees van Eyck as attempting to depict the scene completely naturally, or in all of its total, unembellished glory. For example, Carrier quotes Ludwig Baldass as saying of the mirror behind the couple: “The convex diminishing mirror is there in order that the whole of the room may be seen. . . . Convex mirrors are always round, for which reason the roundness in this case is not to be interpreted as a symbol of the world” (238). Stated in another way, the

mirror is there to show everyone the entirety of the event, including the witnesses, leaving no allegorical description necessary. The same naturalism can be applied to the small dog standing between the couple. Hall indicates that through his historical research, it can be demonstrated that “dogs were virtually everywhere in northern Europe during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries” and because of this, they are “less likely to have symbolic meaning” (115-6).
A third and very convincing interpretation of the work is that the subject of the portrait is in fact a signed visual wedding portrait created for the purpose of recording the event because of the financial implications of a marriage alliance between Giovanni Arnolfini to Giovanna Cenami and their two affluent families (Hall 9, 105). This interpretation of the Arnolfini Portrait claims that prior critical analysis of the work has been so far removed from the historical circumstances of its creation that a full restudy of its historical context must be made to understand the subject and function of the work (Hall xviii). Hall puts forth this argument not only to counter the heavy allegorical interpretations of the work, but also to counter other modern and post-modern methodologies such as deconstructionism that further pulls the work out of its historical context (Hall xix).
The various interpretations of the Arnolfini Wedding Portrait have sparked numerous journal articles, books, and sections of other collected works. As modern and post-modern methodologies continue to evolve, more interpretations of the work are sure to abound. To quote David Carrier, “this is a good thing, not a danger, since it means that future art historians have much work to do” (247).

Works Cited

Carrier, David. “Naturalism and Allegory in Flemish Painting.” Journal of Aesthetics & Art Criticism 45 (1987): 237-49. Academic Search Premier. EBSCOhost. Clackamas Community College, Oregon City. 26 Feb. 2009 .

Eyck, Jan Van. The Arnolfini Portrait. 1434. Jan van Eyck Collection, The National Gallery, London. The Arnolfini Portrait. The National Gallery. 1 Mar. 2009 .

Farber, Allen. “Jan Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Wedding Portait.” Jan Van Eyck’s Arnolfini “Wedding” Portrait. State University of New York at Oneota. 27 Feb. 2009 .

Hall, Edwin. The Arnolfini Betrothal: Medieval Marriage and the Enigma of Van Eyck’s Double Portrait. Berkeley: University of California P, 1994.

Giotto di Bondone was born in the year 1267 in Italy. Numerous sources indicate that Giotto was born in Colle Vespignano, a small town about 21 miles north of the City of Florence (”Biography - Giotto Di Bondone”).
. Little is known about Giotto’s early years. Many secondary sources quote a story from Giorgio Vasari’s “Lives of the Artists” stating that Giotto was a shepherd boy whose drawings caught the attention of Cimabue, whom Giotto apprenticed with (Gillet, “Giotto di Bondone”). Other sources state that Giotto apprenticed in another trade, but that he spent so much time in Cimabue’s shop that he was finally brought on as an apprentice (Pioch, “Giotto di Bondone”).
Regardless of how he became an apprentice, Giotto accompanied Cimabue to Assisi, where Cimabue painted several large Frescoes in the late thirteenth century. This is significant because over 25 of the frescoes in the Upper Church of the Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi have been attributed to Giotto (”Biography - Giotto Di Bondone”). The works at Assisi attributed to Giotto “are revolutionary in their expression of reality and humanity” (Murray, “Giotto Di Bondone”). Giotto focused on the portrayal of human emotions, which became a trademark of his work that set him apart from his contemporaries (Pioch, “Giotto di Bondone”). During this same time period, it is believed that Giotto also painted a fresco of the Annunciation at the Santa Maria Novella in Florence (”Biography - Giotto Di Bondone”).

Giotto married Ricevuta di Lapo del Pela in 1287, when he was 20 years old. The couple settled in Florence where they purchased a home, where Ricevuta bore him eight children. One of their children, Francesco, later became a painter like his father (”Renaissance Art Giotto di Bondone”).
Giotto painted his acknowledged masterpiece in a series of 28 frescoes at the
Scrovegni Chapel from 1303 to 1310. The chapel, also known as the Arena Chapel because it sat on the site of an old Roman arena, was commissioned by Enrico degli Scrovegni to atone for the sins of his father, a well known moneylender (”Biography - Giotto Di Bondone”). This series of frescoes are the only works that have been universally attributed to Giotto and are non-disputed (Pioch, “Giotto di Bondone”). The Arena Chapel, which is dedicated to the Virgin (”Biography - Giotto Di Bondone”), features depictions of the Annunciation, scenes from the life of Mary and her parents, scenes from the Passion of Jesus, and on the back wall near the exit, the Final Judgment of Christ.
Other important works by Giotto include a fresco in the Basilica of San Giovanni commissioned by Pope Boniface VIII for a jubilee festival (”Biography - Giotto Di Bondone”), as well as the Navicella depicting the Ship of the Church (of which nothing survives) commissioned by a Cardinal Stefaneschi for Old St. Peters in Rome.
Giotto was close friends with Dante, the author of the Divine Comedy. In fact, Giotto painted Dante’s portrait frequently and depicted him as a bystander in some of his fresco works (Pioch, “Giotto di Bondone”). Giotto also had a close friendship with King Robert of Naples, for whom he taught a group of young artists (”Biography - Giotto Di Bondone”).

In 1334, Giotto was appointed as the chief architect of the Florence Cathedral, as well as the Superintendent of Public Works for the City. In this position, Giotto was known as the “Great Master” (”Renaissance Art Giotto di Bondone”). Giotto designed the campanile of the cathedral during this time, but died before it was completed. The campanile went uncompleted until 1359, delayed by the death of several more chief architects (”Giotto’s Campanile”).
Giotto died in Milan on January 8, 1337 (Gillet, “Giotto di Bondone”). He was buried in the Church of Santa Reparata in Florence, where his bones were discovered in the 1970’s (”Biography - Giotto Di Bondone”). Because of Giotto’s skill in depicting human emotion, human faces, and his detailed work that depicted clothing and anatomy in correct poses, Giotto was an inspiration to countless painters after him. Both Michelangelo and Masaccio are both known to have been strongly influenced by Giotto’s work. Giotto proved himself to be the most important and influential artist of the 14th Century, and the father of Western painting (Pioch, “Giotto di Bondone”).

Works Cited
“Biography - Giotto Di Bondone.” Giotto Di Bondone - The Complete Works. 2009. 12 Feb. 2009 .

Gillet, Louis. “Giotto di Bondone.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. 1909. New Advent - The Catholic Encyclopedia. 13 Feb. 2009 .

Giotto. Joachim Taking Refuge Among the Shepards. 1304-1306. Capella degli Scrovegni, Padua, Italty. Olga’s Gallery. 15 Feb. 2009

Giotto. Meeting at the Golden Gate. 1304-1306. Capella degli Scrovegni, Padua, Italty. Olga’s Gallery. 15 Feb. 2009 .

Giotto. Preaching before Pope Honorius III. 1295-1300. St. Francis, Upper Church, Assisi, Italy. Olga’s Gallery. 15 Feb. 2009 .

Giotto. Receiving the Stigmata. Before 1300. St. Francis, Upper Church, Assisi, Italy. Olga’s Gallery. 15 Feb. 2009 .

Giotto. St. Francis Giving His Cloak to a Poor Man. 1295-1300. St. Francis, Upper Church, Assisi, Italy. Olga’s Gallery. 15 Feb. 2009 .

Giotto. The Expulsion of the Demons from Arezzo. 1295-1300. St. Francis, Upper Church, Assisi, Italy. Olga’s Gallery. 15 Feb. 2009 .

Giotto. The Last Judgment. 1304-1306. Capella degli Scrovegni, Padua, Italty. Olga’s Gallery. 15 Feb. 2009 .

Giotto. The Massacre of the Innocents. 1304-1306. Capella degli Scrovegni, Padua, Italty. Olga’s Gallery. .
15 Feb. 2009.
“Giotto’s Campanile.” Wikipedia. 13 Feb. 2009. 13 Feb. 2009 .

Murray, Peter J. “Giotto Di Bondone.” Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 2009. 13 Feb. 2009 .

Pioch, Nicolas. “Giotto di Bondone.” WebMuseum, Paris. 27 July 2002. The University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill. 13 Feb. 2009 .

“Renaissance Art Giotto di Bondone.” ThinkQuest Library. 14 Aug. 2000. Oracle Educational Foundation. 13 Feb. 2009 .